ENGLESKI ESNOVE

01. osnove

02. američki i britanski engleski

03. izgovor

04. imenice

05. engleski određeni član

06. pridjevi

07. prilozi

08. zamjenice

09. prijedlozi

10. veznici

11. velikim slovom uvijek se pišu

12. vrijeme,dani,datumi,brojevi

13. red riječi, nijekanje, upiti, odgovori

14. sažimanja

01. osnove

Engleski je najgovoreniji europski jezik u svijetu sa preko 350 milijuna govoritelja — oko jedna trećina stanovnika zemlje. Postao je gotovo općeprihvaćeni jezik zrakoplovstva, trgovine, medicine, tehike, kompjutorskih znanosti, nakladništva, sredstava javnog priopćavanja i drugih oblasti.

Engleski je glavni jezik Sjedinjenih Država, Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva (Engleska, Škotska, Wales i Sjeverna Irska), Kanada, Australija, Novi Zeland, Irska, Singapur, Gijana, Jamajka, Bermuda i Bahama, Trinidad i Tobago, Barbados, i Beliz. Engleski je također glavni drugi jezik Izraela, Južne Afrike, Kenije, Nigerije, Sudana, Tanzanije, Zambije, Gane, Indije, Pakistana, Sri Lanke, Burme, Hong Konga, Malezije i Filipina. Ukupno preko 750 milijuna ljudi u svijetu govori engleski. Neki smatraju da engleski govori preko miljardu ljudi.

Od gotovo 2,700 jezika svijeta, engleski vjerojatno ima najbogatiji rječnik sa preko 500,000 zabilježenih riječi i još tolikim brojem nezabilježenih znanstvenih i stručnih termina. Za uporedbu, njemački ima rječnik od približno 185,000 riječi, a francuski manje nego 100,000.

Engleski je podrijetlom germanski jezik, ali u njemu ima dosta latinskog utjecaja. Uz to, engleski je usvojio brojne riječi iz drugih jezika i od drugih naroda. Takve su riječi kosher = košerni, pagoda = pagoda, bonanza = bonanca, and facade = fasada, voodoo = vudu, et i druge, sve iz različitih jezika. S druge strane, engleski je posudio veliki broj riječi drugim jezicima.

02. američki i britanski engleski

Premda postoje brojne druge varijante engleskog jezika, američki i britanski engleski su dva glavna oblika koja se koriste u današnjem svijetu. Većina drugih varijeteta temelji se barem u nekoj mjeri na jednom od ta dva glavna oblika. Obje varijante imaju brojne idiome, riječi iz slanga i frazeme karakteristične smao za njih, a uz to razlike se ogledaju i u grafiji, izgovoru i u manjoj mjeri ortografiji.

 Izgovor

Postoji čitav niz različitih izgovora i američkog i britanskog engleskog, ali ono što se može zvati “općim američkim” i “općim britanskim” izgovorim se obično smatra “prosjekom”. Ti “opći” oblici izgovora često se koriste u prijenosima na državnim radijskim i televizijskim postajama. 

 Grafija

Postoji nekoliko glavnih oblasti razlika između britanske i američke grafije, na primjer: 

Hrvatski            Britanski en.        Američki en.

susjed	neighbour	neighbor
rad	labour	labor
para	vapour	vapor
okus	flavour	flavor
boja	colour	color
humor	humour	humor
oprost	parlour	parlor
ovlastiti	authorise	authorize
ispričati se	apologise	apologize
kazalište	theatre	theater
središte	centre	center
metar	metre	meter
kilometar	kilometre	kilometer
millimetar	millimetre	millimeter
ček	cheque	check
putnik	traveller	traveler
nakit	jewellery	jewelry
otkazan	cancelled	canceled
dozvola	licence	license
obrana	defence	defense
napadaj	offence	offense
siv	grey	gray

 

 Leksičke razlike

Postoje i razlike među riječima i frazemima između britanskog i američkog engleskog, na primjer:

Hrvatski              Britanski en.         Američki en.

stan	flat	apartment
ploča	skirting board	baseboard
čips	crisps	potato chips
ljekarnik	chemist	druggist
gumica	India rubber	eraser
auto-put	motorway	freeway
pomfrit	chips	french fries
tregeri	garters	suspenders
smeće	rubbish	trash/garbage
benzin	petrol	gas/gasoline
hauba (auta)	bonnet (car)	hood (car)
kerozin	paraffin	kerosene
pelena	nappy	diaper
dizalo	lift	elevator
kamion	lorry	truck
najam	let	rent/lease
pošta	post	mail
preteći	flyover	overpass
parkiralište	car park	parking lot
grožđica	sultana	raisin
pločnik	pavement	sidewalk
podzemna	tube/underground	subway
dva tjedna	fortnight	two weeks
potkošulja	vest	undershirt
odmor	holiday	vacation
krpa	face flannel	wash cloth
vjetrobran	windscreen	windshield
prsluk	waistcoat	vest
ništica	nought/nil	zero

03. izgovor

Slovo		Izgovara se
a	man	men
b	boy	boj
c	cat	ket
d	dog	dog
e	bed	bed
f	food	fud
g	go	gou
h	head	hed
i	sit	sit
j	jump	džamp
k	kite	kajt
l	log	log
m	man	men
n	neck	nek
o	potpose	potpouz
p	pot	pot
q	quit	kvit
r	rabbit	rebit
s	silver	silver
t	top	top
u	under	ander
v	victor	viktor
w	wait	uejt
x	x-rayxerox	eks-rejziroks
y	youngfinally	jangfajneli
z	zebra	zibra

04. imenice

Imenice su riječi kojima se označavaju ljudi, životinje, mjesta, stvari, osobine i misli. Sve engleske imenice su srednjeg roda. Rod također nije bitan za član, pridjev ili glagol. U svim slučajevima the je jedini određeni član što se rabi u engleskom, a a odnosno an are jedini neodređeni član. Tvorba množine imenica u engleskom jeziku obično se obavlja dodavanjem nastavka s ili es na imenicu.

Osoba             Mjesto              Stvar             Osobina

Mary	classroom	lion	happiness
Robert	street	computer	courage
professor	New York	pencil	sincerity
British	lake	justice	intelligence

Imenice se dalje mogu dijeliti na opće, osobne, zbirne, gradivne i složene. Opće označuju bilo koju grupu ljudi, mjesta ili stvari; osobne konkretne osobe, mjesta, stvari; zajedničke grupe ljudi ili stvari; gradivne osobine ili stvari koje se ne mogu fizički brojati; složene imenice sastavljene su od dvije riječi koje se spajaju u jednu riječ ili riječ s crticom. 

Opće    Osobne    Zbirne    Gradivne    Zajedničke

boy	Mary	team	fury	airport terminal
ocean	Danube	River	family fluor	train station
street	Elm Street	neighbors	sand	classroom
dress	Lake Erie	crowd	weakness	polar ice cap
kitchen	California	audience	confusion	street traffic
car	London	citizens	strength	mother-in-law

1 Većina imenica tvori množinu dodavanjem s na kraj:

Jednina                Množina

book	books
American	Americans
river	rivers
ocean	oceans
car	cars
scene	scenes
street	streets
mountain	mountains
girl	girls
cat	cats
train	trains
case	cases
ticket	tickets
flower	flowers
plate	plates
cup	cups
cake	cakes
cap	caps
map	maps

2 Mnoge (ali ne sve) imenice koje završavaju na dvostruko slovo (obično ss) tvore množinu dodavanje nastavka es na kraj: 

Jednina          Množina

butt	butts
glass	glasses
mass	masses
compass	compasses
match	matches
bush	bushes
wish	wishes
kiss	kisses

3 Neke imenice stranog podrijetla na eau rabe x u množini:

Jednina          Množina

bandeau

beandeaux

4 Iznimke: 

(A) Ako imenica završava na ispred koga je konsonant, mijenjaju y u i i dodaju es: 

Jednina                                                         Množina 

sky	sky – y + i + es =	skies
comedy	comedy – y + i + es =	comedies

Ako imenica završava na y a ispred je vokal,, y ostaje i dodaje se samo s: 

Jednina                Množina 

toy	toys
boy	boys

(B) Ako imenica završava na fe, to fe mijenja se u ve i dodaje se s: 

Jednina                                                     Množina 

knife

knife – fe + ve + s =

knives

(C) Nekoliko imenica na o dodaje es u množini:

Jednina            Množina

potato	potatoes
Negro	Negroes

(D) Mnogo imenica ima nepravilnu množinu. To treba provjeriti u engleskom rječniku. 

Jednina                Množina

radius	radii
foot	feet
man	men
woman	women
wife	wives
leaf	leaves
ox	oxen
mouse	mice
alumnus	alumni
goose	geese
child	children
sheep	sheep
sheaf	sheaves

05. engleski određeni član

the book

the idea

the woman

the man

the newspaper

the boy

the girl

the glass

the law

the lion

the lioness

the country

the street

the state

the table

the train

the car

the glass

the cup

the meal

the dog

the cat

the room

the house 

Engleski neodređeni član ima oblik a — koji se koristi kad je iza neodređenog člana riječ koja počinje konsonantom. Kad je iza neodređenog člana riječ na vokal (a, e, i, o, or u), a se mijenja u an:

a book

a man

a woman

a car

a library

a street

a house

a table

a door 

an article

an apple

an application

an edge

an eagle

an egg

an historic (exception)

an idea

an indication

an index

an opal

an option

an opinion

an umbrella

an ungrateful son 

U engleskom pokazne zamjenice (zvane i pokaznim članovima) su:

this

that

each

every

some

many

such

all

which

Pokazne zamjenice idu ispred imenice na koju se odnose:

this man

this magazine

that woman

that book

each person

every article

some folk

many people

such details

all men

which side

Posvojne zamjenice (zvane i posvojnim članovima) tvore se od osobnih zamjenica:

Osobna zamjenica         Posvojna zamjenica

I	mine
he	his
she	her
it	its
we	our
you	your
they	their

That coat is mine.

That is his bicycle.

This is her book.

Its outcome is certain.

Our house is painted green.

Your bus is late.

They put their coats on before going outside.

06. pridjevi

Pridjev je opisna riječ koja karakterizira ili modificira imenicu. Postoje dvije vrste engleskih pridjeva 

1.  Prosti pridjevi rabe osnovne riječi kao happy, sad, good, bad, fast, slow, yellow, red, new, old, pretty, ugly, et cetera.

2 . Izvedeni pridjevi tvore se dodavanjem sufiksa na osnovu imenice ili glagola, na primjer:

fashion + able =	fashionable
forget + ful =	forgetful
hero + ic =	heroic
fool + ish =	foolish
attract + ive =	attractive
humor + ous =	humorous
health + y =	healthy

U engleskom pridjev obično ide ispred imenice na koju se odnosi: 

Two red cars are parked on the street.

A new world record was set today.

That was a humorous story.

I bought two new books.

She bought a fashionable dress.

He has two new cars.

She is an attractive woman.

That was a terrible book.

It was a boring trip.

Često pridjevi koji opisuju imenice mogu ići iza glagola: 

His two cars are new and fashionable.

His new car is red and fast.

Her new dress is green.

My car is old.

Our trip was boring.

That book was terrible.

Our trip was boring.

07. prilozi

Prilozi, poput pridjeva, modificiraju i određuju količinu, ograničavaju ili pojašnjavaju druge riječi u rečenici.

Tvorba priloga

Uporaba priloga

Mnogi engleski prilozi tvore se dodavanjem nastavka -ly na pridjev. Nekad, ako pridjev završava na e, to e se ispušta: 

pridjev prilog 

new + ly =		newly
pleasant + ly =		pleasantly
hesitant + ly =		hesitantly
clear + ly =		clearly
near + ly =		nearly
close + ly =		closely
dear + ly =		dearly
cost + ly =		costly
affordable -e + ly =		affordably
experimental + ly =		experimentally

Neke su riječi isključivo prilozi:

there

very

here

almost

Prilozi se se često rabe da odrede glagol ali kao intenzifikatori mogu određivati pridjeve i druge priloge:

 Uz glagol

Prilozi se rabe da odrede glagole i često u rečenici idu iza glagola:

The river flows smoothly.

The time went quickly.

The bus arrived promptly at 3:00 o’clock.

 Uz pridjev

Prilozi mogu biti rabljeni da odrede pridjev. U tom slučaju prilog obično idu ispred pridjeva koji određuju:

The cake is almost gone.

That is a very boring book.

It was unbelievably cold.

 Uz priloge

Prilog može biti rabljen da odredi drugi prilog. U tom slučaju ide ispred priloga koji određuje:

Her hair is amazingly silky.

08. zamjenice

Zamjenica je riječ koja zamjenjuje ili se koristi umjesto imenice ili grupe riječi koje se ponašaju kao imenice. Dijele se na osobne, povratne, neodređene, odnosne i upitne.

Osobne zamjenice

Povratne zamjenice

Neodređene zamjenice

Odnosne zamjenice

Upitne zamjenice

Osobne zamjenice upućuju na određene ljude i dijele se na tri načina:

zamjenice prvog lica —–>          odnose se na govoritelja

zamjenice drugog lica —>          odnose se na slušaoca

zamjenice trećeg lica —–>          odnose se na osobu, mjesto ili stvar o kojoj se govori

I	we	you	he
me	us	your	him
my	our	yours	his
mine	ours	she
her
hers
they
them
their
theirs
it
its

Sve osobne zamjenice mogu biti subjekt u rečenici:

I am going shopping.

He took the wrong road.

His car is green.

She is working hard.

Her purse was stolen.

It is a black cat.

Its paw is sore.

We went shopping yesterday.

Our bus is late.

You must always remember to do well.

Your hair is pretty.

They were here last Tuesday.

Their trip was postponed.

Povratne zamjenice rabe se kad se radnja glagola odnosi na subjekt rečenice.

Osobna zamjenica         Povratna zamjenica

I	myself
he	himself
she	herself
it	itself
we	ourselves
you	yourself/yourselves
they	themselves

I cut myself yesterday.

I myself don’t like it.

He bought himself a new car.

He himself is responsible.

She cooked herself a wonderful meal.

We bought ourselves a box of chocolates.

You gave yourself quite a shock.

They washed themselves in the river.

You yourself need to be aware.

Neodređene zamjenice mogu se zamijeniti imenicom, ali ne određuju točno ono na što se odnose:

One should always be careful with fire.

There were only three of them, you see.

Some people just never understand.

They have only themselves to blame.

Anyone can do that.

Somebody should tell them.

Someone should say something.

Česte neodređene zamjenice

much	little	several	one
each	all	many	any
most	more	neither	nobody
no one	nothing	something	other
both	some	everybody	none
anyone	others	either	another
anything	few	anybody	everything
somebody	someone	everybody

Odnosne zamjenice uvode zavisnu rečenicu. Odnose se na imenicu, zamjenicu ili rečenicu ispred sebe i daju dodatnu informaciju. Najčešće odnosne zamjenice su:

 who

which

that

whom

whose

He was the one who did it.

The clothes which are hanging on the line are nearly dry

The car that just passed was speeding.

She is the person to whom you must speak.

He was the one whose fingers slipped.

Osobne (za ljude)         Neosobne (zastvari)

who     which

whose  what

Upitne zamjenice rabe se u pitanjima. Obično su u jednini, ali često idu uz množinu glagola to be ako je iza imenica u množini:

Who is coming today?

What did you say?

Whose coat is this?

Who can I ask?

Which one do you want?

Who are your friends?

What is the reason?

09. prijedlozi

Prijedlozi kao from, in, about, with, i drugi, su “funkcijske riječi ” i obično pivezuju imenice, glagole, pridjeve i priloge. Obično iza njih idu imenice ili zamjenice: 

Hrvatski   Prijedlog      Primjer

o	about	He will arrive at about six o’clock.
poslije	after	He arrived after her.
protiv	against	He was against the idea.
uz	along	She went along with the others.
osim	apart from	Apart from my clothes, I have no possessions.
oko	around	The bus is due to arrive around 3:00 p.m.
u	at	I bought it at the bookstore.
prije	before	Did the chicken come before the egg?
Između	between	The girl walked between her parents.
-	by	He traveled by train.
tijekom	during	It rained during our voyage.
za	for	He asked for a glass of water.
iz	from	He came from London
ispred	in front of	He sat in front of the television all day.
u	in	I found it in the closet.
Unutar	inside	Her money is inside her purse.
u	into	The river flows into the sea.
blizu	near	He lives near the beach.
-	of	He is a friend of mine.
na	on	He came here on his bicycle.
nasuprot	opposite	I live opposite the park.
izvan	out	She went out the door.
iz	out of	He ran out of the house.
van	outside	The best beach is outside of town.
pored	past	They went past here yesterday.
oko (okolo)	around (round)	He just came around the corner.
kroz	through	He ran through the water.
do	until (till)	The party continued until (till) dawn.
do	to	How do I get to the bus station?
prema	toward	It gets cold toward evening.
ispod	under	The book is under the newspaper.
sa	with	She went with her father.
bez	without	She arrived without her ticket.

10. veznici

1.  Naporedni veznici vezuju dvije slične grupe riječi (npr. imenice, zamjenice, pridjeve, priloge, glagole, sintagme i rečenice). Glavni naporedni veznici su:

but

because

or

and

but

as well as 

I like cheese but I don’t like milk.

He came because I invited him.

Do you want to dance or go home?

You and I will finish the job.

He is smart but not brilliant.

The gift is for John as well as Mary. 

2 Dvodjelni veznici

both (…) and (…)

not only (…) but also (…)

either (…) or (…)

neither (…) nor (…)

Both John and Mary will be there later.

He not only asked Robert but also Jane.

Either you do the job or I will.

Neither John nor Mary knew him very well. 

3.  Prilozi koji se ponašaju kao naporedni veznici. Najčešći su: 

so

therefore

meanwhile

in any case

otherwise

therefore

despite that

I have to get up early so I must go now

The legislature passed the law, therefore we must obey it.

I read the paper, meanwhile Mary did the housework

In any case, we lost the game.

I won the bet, otherwise I would have had to wash the dishes.

He is 35 year old but, despite that, he behaves like a child

4 . Zavisni veznici uvode zavisnu rečenicu. Glavni zavisni veznici su:

that

when

before

after

since

while

if, when(ever)

as if

so that

because

with the

as soon as

although

without

in order to

Please tell him that I would love to do it!

The car drove off the road when the driver failed to see the turn.

If only we had the time, we could do so much.

When(ever) I see her, she always looks so happy.

He was walking as if he were drunk.

Will you help me so that I can get to work on time? 

He blew the car’s horn in order to get her attention.

5 Ispuštanje

Nekad se zavisni veznik može potpuno ispustiti.

Please tell him (that) I would love to do it!

If we (only) had the time, we could do so much.

Will you help me so (that) I can get to work on time?

He blew the car’s horn (in order) to get her attention. 

6 Upitne riječi

Upitne riječi what, who, which i how ponašaju se kao zavisni veznici u neupravnim pitanjima:

Then he asked me what time it was.

He wanted to know how much it cost.

John wanted to know which answer was correct.

11. velikim slovom uvijek se pišu

Zamjenica	(nikad se ne piše i)
Prva riječ u rečenici	(Today it is raining.)
Imena ljudi	(John, Mary, James, Robert, itd.)
Imena naroda i grupa ljudi	(American, British, Arabic, Asian, itd.)
Kontinenti	(Europe, North America, Africa, Asia, itd.)
Zemlje	(United States, Great Britain, Russia, itd.)
Države i pokrajine	(California, New York, Denver, Kent, itd.)
Oblasti, planinski lanci, pustinje  (Burgundy, Bavaria, Alps, Andes, Sahara, itd.)
Oceani, rijeke i jezera	(Atlantic Ocean, Lake Michigan, Amazon River, itd.)
Imena tvrdaka	(Microsoft Corporation, Translation Experts Limited, itd.)
Religije	(Catholic, Protestant, Moslem, Evangelical, itd.)
Godišnja doba	(Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn — also Fall in the U.S.)
Mjeseci u godini	(January, February, March, itd.)
Dani tjedna	(Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, itd.)